India Women Essays - Marriage, Violence Against Women In India

India Women Silenced by their culture large populations of women in India tolerate abuse and subsequent death because they have provided insufficient dowry. In a culture that is male dominated women are raised to be servants to their husbands often arranged to marry a man that they have never met. Women that are beaten or just unhappy must suppress their feelings to keep their husbands blissful or face shame and be turned away by their own families. Indian womens household must pay a dowry for the privilege of marrying a man of status. The dowry often consists of money, merchandise, or gold that is displayed when the couple is married. Women are being mistreated for insufficient dowry money because the grooms family may be greedy and would like more items. If the brides family cannot provide more for the in-laws they will kill her so that he may keep the dowry he already had collected and then marries another that may possess more money or status. The original dowry is determined by the perceive d value of the husbands hand in marriage. If the husband is very desirable then he commands a very high dollar figure, if the offer of money is too low then the grooms family will not accept it because it is an insult. A woman held a PHD and married a man that was a shopkeeper with less education than she possessed. Her father provided a years worth of salary and many gifts. After the couple had been married six months, the in-laws requested a washing machine and other items that the brides family could not afford to give. They taunted the bride and eventually she was found hung from a ceiling fan. The groom was never convicted because he told the police she committed suicide, because she did not love him enough. Since the death took place in his home, they had no way of knowing if it was the truth. The woman was cut off from her relatives and had once asked her father to help her because she did not feel safe with her new husband. The father told her that she should give it time because he was not to intervene to early in the marriage, he wanted her to stay married at the time. (Mandelbaum p.1) Women in India marry within their own social caste which divides people into four major groups the Brahmin, kshatryia, vaishya, and the sudra with some of the lower people being called so the untouchables. The untouchables are called so dirty that even a glass that they have drunk from cleaned, will always be contaminated. Female babies are viewed as a burden to the father, that he must work and save to marry her off and males are always preferred. The birth of a girl is mourned in most families, which contributes to female infanticide in India today. (India dowry p67) The marriages that take place are all arranged and can take place even as children, teenagers, and twenty-year-old businessmen and women that has to yield to the practice in society. Women that do choose their own mates are not exempt from the dowry and often face anger from their parents or being disowned. Parents will often look for the most suitable mate for tier daughter in classified ads, Internet, or marriage bro kers with out prior knowledge each other the bride and groom are married if the dowry is in agreement on both sides. In Hindu laws of Manu a woman is joined to her husband and has to suffer with him and act with tolerance, this religion believes that women are the cause if a marriage fails and that men are absolved from their own actions. If there is any unhappiness in the home of an Indian woman, they look at her as the cause even if the husband is in some cases beating, taunting and allowing his friends to gang rape her. These women have no choice but to stay in inhumane situations because they were raised in a culture that does not give them many rights and teaches them from an early age to be a servant. If an Indian woman needs help there are few places

Guide to Writing Argumentative Essays in Management All Under Control!

Guide to Writing Argumentative Essays in Management All Under Control! What Is an Argumentative Essay in Management? An argumentative essay is an essay that discusses both sides of a specific issue. Various ideas may be presented equally, or one side may be shown more forcefully in comparison with another side, depending on the writer’s position regarding the particular topic. The main goal of an argumentative essay is to approach the problem from various angels and provide a different perspective on the issue. This type of essay requires one to conduct thorough research and gather and evaluate a considerable amount of data. The argumentative essays in management aim to cover different concepts about organizing, coordinating, and planning that are the basis of management studies. As management studies and theories greatly expanded over the last decades, numerous debatable and even controversial approaches appeared. Argumentative essays in management analyze strong and weak sides of various aspects of these approaches and provide the audience with a full understanding of the topic. Choosing a Topic for an Argumentative Essay As a usual rule, choosing a topic for an argumentative essay in management comes without difficulties as there is a wide range of issues and problems that may be discussed in the management studies. However, it is crucial to pay attention and choose a topic that was not widely discussed and explained before or approach this issue from a new perspective otherwise. Some of the examples of argumentative essays in management include: Cultural Differences in Various Approaches to Managing People; Is an Effective Manager an Effective Leader? The Significance of Stress Reduction Strategies; Successful Management of Human Resources; Different Approaches to Team Building; Manager’s Response to Crisis; Challenges of Supply Chain Management; The Evolving Nature of Team Work; Understanding the Difference between Leadership and Management; Management of Diversity in the Changing Era of Globalization and Modernization. Pre-Writing Tips In case the topic was not provided by the professor, the student should choose one on his/her own. Selecting a topic is the first and most crucial part of the pre-writing process. One of the essential aspects that one needs to realize is that the process of developing a topic for an argumentative essay in management is specific in several ways. Firstly, one who is considering different issues for an argumentative essay in management should avoid selecting those topics they feel passionate about because of the possibility of bias. The student should remain focused on providing the audience with information supported by facts and data but without any indications of partiality. Another important aspect is the need to focus on a narrow and specific topic, without deepening into unnecessary or irrelevant details. The next step is making a thorough research on the topic. The author should gather enough relevant material in order to write a successful argumentative essay. The students should not overestimate their knowledge on the issue. Even if they have prior knowledge about the topic, that is crucial to broaden that knowledge by conducting research and gathering additional information. One may start by reviewing reading materials from the class on the subject, lecture notes, or presentation slides. After gaining the necessary information, it is time to create the paper’s structure and a thesis statement. One may write down all the aspects they aim to cover in the essay and organize it properly. One may consider using secondary sources to gain more information for analysis after the structure of the essay is formed. One may use numerous management journals that contain a wide variety of relevant articles to find evidence to support their points. There should be created a considerable b ase of sources that one should use to support their claims and points. The successful argumentative essay is based on the facts and data that come from reliable and credible sources. While working on the development of the essay structure, the student should focus on covering the most important details and leaving out the irrelevant information for the particular issue. There are several strategies that may help conduct productive research. Firstly, one may write down on paper any thoughts regarding the topic that come to their mind, without considering their relevance. Such a strategy is called free writing, and it allows creating the general image of the paper. After all the ideas were written down, the student may analyze them and highlight the most crucial. Another way to make the paper meaningful and deep is called questions asking. While forming an essay structure, one may ask themselves such questions: Why should anyone be interested in this particular topic? Why is it significant to discuss this issue? What value does the presented information contain? Why is it important to include this point? Is there anything else I have to say about this topic? While preparing for writing the essay, it is essential to consider the target audience. The class assignment that will be read only by the instructor and the paper for the conference should be written in different ways. One should focus on writing in such a way that is expected from his/her and focus on the necessary details. Structure of an Informative Essay The structure of an argumentative essay is not any different from a typical structure of an academic essay. The paper starts with an introduction that explains why the audience should be interested in the presented topic. A well-constructed thesis statement is the most critical part of the introductory paragraph that usually is the last sentence of the introduction. The next part is the body paragraphs. They should include background information, supporting evidence, and counterargument to address all the aspects of the topic. Usually, the argumentative essay contains three body paragraphs, but if the discussed topic is complicated, it is reasonable to write more body paragraphs. The last part of the paper is the conclusion where one should sum up all the presented information and restate the thesis statement. Outline An argumentative essay in management starts with an introduction that contains one or two paragraphs. The purpose of the introduction is to set up and state the main argument. The introductory paragraph should be interesting and drawing the readers’ attention. Additionally, background information should be provided as it will allow understanding the author’s central claim. While writing the argumentative essay in management, it is essential to give a brief explanation of the concepts or theories that will be discussed in the paper. The thesis statement is a vital part of the introduction that should be written at the end of the introductory paragraph. It presents one’s main argument in a clear and understandable way. The next part is the background part. Background is an optional paragraph and may be omitted in some papers. In such cases, this information is included in the introduction part. The purpose of the background paragraph is to provide the basis for proving one’s claim. The necessary elements are a summary of the discussed sources, the definition of the key terms, or explanation of the related management theories or concepts. The next paragraph is the first supporting evidence paragraph. The purpose of this part is to prove the argument. One presents the specific item or detail that will allow the audience to gain a better understanding of the issue. The evidence should be introduced either in a few words or in a full sentence that will prove the claimed fact. The supporting evidence should contain either direct quotes or in-text citations from reliable sources to provide a credible background for the claims. After that, one should explain the evidence and provide their interpretation of it. The explanation of the evidence should show how this evidence proves the point that one wants to make in this paragraph. There should be at least two supporting evidence paragraphs, but there can be more in case the topic is complicated and requires in-depth discussion. The last paragraph of the main body part should be the counterargument paragraph. The main goal of this part is to provide the audience with the opposite perspective of the issue and make the essay more objective in this way. While writing the counterargument, the student should anticipate the objections that the readers can rise while reading the essay. One should carefully consider all of the possible arguments that may be posed against some aspects of their claims. After that, they should insert one or more of those arguments in the essay and refute them. The conclusion paragraph should consist of two parts. Firstly, one may consider reminding the audience of the argument and all the supporting evidence that was used. This includes restating essay’s overall claim and supporting evidence. The conclusion should not include any new information or evidence that was not discussed before. Secondly, the conclusion should illustrate the significance of the issue and why one dedicated their time to research this particular topic instead of some other topics. The conclusion should not include the simply restated thesis statement, but illustrate that the author gained a more complex understanding of the topic. What is more important, by the end of the paper, the reader has to understand what was argued in the paper and be ready to hear the larger point. Post-Writing Tips After the draft of the essay is finished, there are a few essential steps that would help complete a successful argumentative essay in management. For instance, it is essential to proofread the paper and check it for vocabulary and grammar mistakes, coherence, and consistency. One may re-read the story out loud as it would help to hear whether all of the sentences make sense, and the essay goes smoothly. Additionally, it would allow seeing unnecessary or redundant details that should be eliminated. In order to make the essay more elaborated, one may ask their peers to give it a look and provide them with an unbiased opinion. Another person may see some crucial mistakes or weak points that were omitted by the author. There is no difference whether the asked person has or has no prior knowledge on the topic as in both cases, their insights may be extremely useful. The peer who is not an expert in the topic will tell whether the paper is written in a clear and understandable way and whether all of the management theories and concepts are well-explained. The peer who has knowledge on the issue may confirm the quality of the written material. One may create a list of self-check questions that will help understand if the paper is written properly. Does the thesis of the essay reflect the issues that I wanted to discuss? Is the main body paragraphs relevant and address the stated argument? Are the used sources credible? Is the theoretical background of management concepts and theories wide enough? The list of questions may vary, depending on the specific topic of the essay. There are some wide-spread mistakes that should be taken into consideration while proofreading the paper. Firstly, it is writing two identical or very similar claims differently by paraphrasing them. Secondly, adding a lot of information that is irrelevant or not necessary for this specific topic. One more common mistake that is intrinsic to the essays in management is making a statement without referring to a particular concept or theory. There are a lot of concepts and methods in management that may be controversial as they provide a different perspective on the points, and it is crucial to refer to a particular idea. Finally, the draft should be edited according to all the notes that were made in the process of revising and transformed into a final version. It would be useful to take one more look at the essay to check if any minor mistakes were left and correct them. Once the author is confident in their work and does not have any more questions left, the paper may be submitted. References Argumentative Essays. Owl Purdue. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/academic_writing/essay_writing/argumentative_essays.html How to Write My Management Essay? A Concise Guide. ManagerWise. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.managerwise.com/do-my-management-essay-for-college/ Steps for Writing an Argumentation Essay. (n.d.) Lycoming College. Retrieved from https://www.lycoming.edu/academicresourcecenter/argumentation.aspx Tucker, K. (2018). What Are the Five Parts of an Argumentative Essay?. Retrieved from https://www.theclassroom.com/five-parts-argumentative-essay-12064227.html

Managed Care Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Managed Care - Essay Example Accreditation is the significant process that Managed Care Organizations (MCOs) need to pass in order to prove their credibility and quality. Both, service providers and customers consider the certification as highly important because it indicates that an organization has attained the standard of quality defined by the accrediting agency. The major Accrediting Agencies in the United States are ABQAURP, NCQA & HEDIS, The Joint Commission, AAAHC & AAAASF and URAC. Although the criteria for accreditation vary depending on the type of Managed Care Organizations and the accrediting agency, there are certain common factors that are applicable in the review. The Agencies usually consider the â€Å"MCO’s quality management program and its impact on operations, at utilization management and how it is carried out, at the MCO’s treatment of members and so forth.† (Kongstvedt., 2003 p. 239). TRICARE is a managed care option of Civilian Health and Medical Program of the Uniformed Services (CHAMPUS) initiated by Department of Defense (DOD). The service has been delivered through its worldwide Military Health Service System (MHSS). DOD provides Tricare civilian health benefits for military personnel, military retirees, and their dependents through its 11 health service regions. It has also established a new administrative structure to supervise the delivery of health care. (Kongstvedt, 2003 p.1131). Tricare Standard (Fee for Service Program), Tricare Extra (Preferred Provider Option), Tricare Prime (HMO Option), US Family Health Plan, and Tricare Reserve Select (TRS) are some of the major plans of Tricare. As compared to other managed care services in the United States, Tricare offers more steady high quality health care benefits and reduced costs. Tricare service is accessible according to the priority of the beneficiaries as follows; active duty members, family members o f the active prime members, retirees and their family members, family

Economics (Asian Development) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Economics (Asian Development) - Essay Example The planning mind set is in turn linked to previously discredited theories. Such as that poverty is due to a poverty trap which can only be alleviated by a large inflow of aid from rich country to poor countries. The aid inflow is of course administered by this same planning apparatus. This is a bad news for worlds poor as historically poverty has been ended by central planners. It is only ended by searches both economical and political who explore solution by trial and error. Have a way to get feedback on the ones that work and then expand all of these in an unplanned spontaneous way. Examples of searches are firms in private market and democratically Of course there are hard questions about directions of casualty and exactly which attributes of political and economic freedom are most crucial for development. However to deal with the 1st problem. Since researchers know a little bit about the determinants of bad govt studies can explore whether bad govt causes poverty. The research is less successful at identifying which aspect of bad govt matters such as democracy versus corruption vs. economic freedom. Different dimensions of good govt tend to come together in packages, so it is hard to tell which is causing economic development. This last issue is much harder to resolve but the correlation are at least supportive of strong theoretical priors that democratic and market accountability go with economic success not to mention the vast historical and case study literature that supports this conclusion. The variance of outcome is much higher at low levels of political and economic freedom than at high levels. For countries with nearly complete freedom all of them are rich within a narrow range. For countries with intermediate level of freedom there is a vast range of development outcomes. A few years ago what most people had in mind when they thought of India was land of tigers, the land of taj mahal and a land of

Main idea about Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People (1830) Essay

Main idea about Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People (1830) - Essay Example The artwork (see, Appendix-1) is symbolic of the revolutionary spirit inherent in every human being. To be specific, the main idea about the artwork is related to European society’s transformation from Enlightenment to the realm of Romanticism. Fred Kleiner stated that, â€Å"Balancing contemporaneous historical fact with poetic allegory, Delacroix captured the passion and energy of the 1830 revolution in this painting of Liberty leading the Parisian uprising against Charles X† (623). One can see that the general notion on revolutionaries is based upon masculine power, i.e. male revolutionaries fighting for freedom. But the focal point of this painting is a woman holding the French flag. This is symbolic of the French society’s transformation from Enlightenment to the context of Romanticism. The facial expression of the male revolutionaries proves that they consider the woman as a revolutionary, not as a woman. This sort of freedom and equality is the core aspect of French Revolution. So, the main idea behind the artwork is the revolutionary spirit of human beings, disregarding gender differences. Summing, Eugene Delacroix’s artwork is the combination of Romantic and revolutionary spirits. To be specific, the artist chose a female figure as the artwork’s focal point to portray his perspective on social responsibility. In short, the artist makes use of his artwork to share his views on the relationship between patriotism and individual

Strategies for Dietetic Communication

Strategies for Dietetic Communication Abstract This report contains information about the academic discourse, history, resources used, and communication skills, which make up an important arena for a professional in the dietetic profession. A brief explanation of the AMA style manual used in the dietetic profession is also outlined and compared to the APA style manual. There is a shared understanding of language and terminology that must exist in the dietetic profession, along with knowledge of the ever-changing nutrition world that a professional works in. It is important to know the history of the profession that a person works in to fully appreciate how it evolved to what it is today and who the people are that deserve credit for their hard work and determination. Many resources are involved in gaining knowledge and producing materials that will teach others as well. From journals to magazines, there are many sources that provide up to date, valuable information that can enhance the professional career of a dietetic profession al. Communication skills are the most important characteristic of a dietetic professional. The many ways a dietetic communicates is reviewed in this report. There are many areas to explore in the dietetic profession and that is what is being presented here. Dietetic Profession DISCOURSE A certain language and style of communication that is common among groups of people can be described as discourse. Ideas and rules are shared within a profession community to effectively communicate and comprehend the intended message. A functional structure is learned and becomes common language for those who are involved a certain profession. The discourse of dietetics involves many areas of study of which one must become familiar with in order to communicate effectively with other professionals in the field. A certain vocabulary and terminology must be researched, studied, understood, and communicated between members of this educated community. It is necessary to engage in the values, vocabulary, forms, and manners of the language to be able to effective communicate with those involved in Dietetic profession (1). Learning the discourse of Dietetics begins with the desire to become a professional in the field. One has to be open to learning the required material and master it. There is no end to the learning; it is a constant demand to keep oneself up to speed with what is going on in the current time. There are always more sources, advancements, and newer interests being sparked amongst professionals who desire to make a difference. A person who desires to work in the Dietetic field may have an interest in working with the community in a public health setting, in a clinic or hospital, long-term care, or possibly in food service management. The required curriculum is relative for all of the mentioned and provides a base for a good understanding of nutrition, interpersonal communication, and the health of those that seek Dietetic services. While the classroom sets the stage for what a student seeking a Dietetic degree needs, there is so much that is also learned while performing on-the job training and internship requirements. An important aspect of Dietetic coursework is having an understanding of multiple sciences. It is a challenging biological field and demands attention in the areas of nutritional and food sciences (2). Chemistry is important to study and understand how the human body breakdowns and uses energy. The food that goes into a persons body has chemical properties that are used as energy. It is necessary to complete human anatomy and physiology courses with a firm understanding of the bodys systems and how they work. Without a clear understanding of how the body works, there would be great mystery as to how the body receives, uses, and disposes of nutrients that are consumed. Communication skills are as important as any other skill when working with other professionals in dietetics, clients, and customers. It is necessary that dietetic workers have open communication with other professionals in different fields to ensure that proper treatment and education will be delivered to the client. A common language and terminology is necessary between members of the medical and nutritional field. It is necessary to have access to Merck manuals and medical terminology manuals as a desk reference. There is a difference in presentation when considering whom the audience will be. If a Dietetic professional is presenting to others in the field, it would be appropriate to use tables and graphs that display research finding on the new diabetes medication and its effects on certain ethnic groups. In this case, medical terms and treatment plans can be discussed using words and descriptions that might not be easily recognized by a client or someone unfamiliar with medical terms. It is very important to consider any communication barriers that may be present when counseling and discussing treatment plans with clients. Therefore, it is necessary to be flexible, have, and recognize the different levels of understanding of all different kinds of people. Mathematics is actively part of the day-to-day routine of dietetic personnel. Whether it is tallying up a clients caloric intake for the day or calculating how many kilocalories a certain patient might need in accordance to their body mass index, basic math and algebra come into play each day. If a dietetic professional takes the position of food service manager, that professional has the responsibility of budget preparation, employee hours, wages, training hours, and many other areas that require the use and implementation of mathematics. Most facilities use designated computer applications and programs to keep everyone involved organized and up to date with the care plan and treatment of patients. Altru Health Systems uses Carex and Affinity computer programs to aid in assessment, charting, implementing diet orders, tracking dietary intake, room service and meal management, and for the convenience of shared information between all disciplines that have access to the programs. This is a very useful and accurate way for everyone involved to stay on the same page and therefore be able to deliver better service to the patient. Problem solving skills are tested everyday as new health conditions and medical treatments are constantly changing. Each person who walks through the door requiring dietetic services is unique and needs assessment and screening to determine the best method for treatment and care. What works for one person, may not work for the other. Each care plan is tailored to the individual for any specific needs that may be present. There may be a point when a physician refers someone to nutrition health services for treatment and while assessing the patient, something does not quite match up or a new diagnosis may be necessary. In cases like these, all health professionals need to be up to date with testing and treatment procedures. Keeping up-to-date with the advancements and knowledge of the field through joining the American Dietetic Association can offer a variety of resources and opportunities to stay involved with the profession (3). There are quarterly meetings and continuing professional education (CPE) credits that professionals can take to keep up with the latest research. Health Magazines and newspapers are also great ways to keep up with what is going on in the profession. Someone who is working in a food service management position may not know what kinds of new medications are being used in combination with nutrition therapies and vice a versa. Experimentation is happening all of the time, especially if working as a clinical dietician. Finding the right diet fit for each individual takes trial, error and patience. With the obesity epidemic, Celiac disease, and other dietary related health highlights, it is necessary for the dietetic professional to be open to new ideas and trials of treatment. Research on how the body uses certain macronutrients, vitamins, and minerals can help professionals understand why certain things affect different people, while others may not be affected at all. Sanitation and food safety is key in providing healthful food to all people, especially those who already in a compromised state. September is National Food Safety Education Month, which was created to heighten the awareness of the importance of food safety (4). Proper hand washing, sanitation of workspaces, avoiding cross-contamination, proper cooling methods, and ensuring food is cooked and held for service at the appropriate temperatures must be implemented. A Serve Safe certification is necessary to obtain prior to completion of the outlined curriculum for the dietetic program. This certification is good for five years and needs to be renewed before expiration; otherwise, the course must be repeated to obtain a new certification. The Food Guide Pyramid was developed by the US Department of Agriculture to be used as a visual tool to help people make healthy food choices (5). This is a helpful guide for Dietetic professionals to use when counseling patients and designing meal plans. There is also a specific Food Guide Pyramid for patients with diabetes. The exchange system, in regards to carbohydrates, needs to be considered when preparing a healthy meal plan for this community of people. There are many sources, which can be accessed to aid members of this community in learning and developing a professional and working knowledge of the required technical language and methods used for effective communication. Reading academic journals, attending ADA meetings, joining committees, networking within, attending conferences and workshops, and reading health and nutritional magazines can all be great sources to discover the language used and the format in which the message is delivered. Dietetic Practice Groups (DPG) provides opportunities to increase knowledge through newsletters, publications and continuing professional education credits (6). People who have a shared interest in a more specific area of the profession set up these groups. The goals and interests of the ADA are upheld as new issues are explored and focused on. These groups can help members network and be part of a smaller group within a larger group, of which they become the expert on a specific topic or issue. The AMA style manual is used in the Dietetic profession and provides the appropriate format for citation and professional writing. The manual provides a guide for abbreviating and referencing materials that are commonly used in the writings of professional works. The ADA website, www.eatright.org, is a great place to find important communication information, ranging from sample letters to forms, to application assistance. The discourse of Dietetics is complex and takes time and interest to become the expert in. HISTORY The history of food and nutrition dates back as far as the beginning of recorded history. In the era of hunters and gathers, people knew that they had to eat in order to survive. The teachings and techniques that were used to obtain food at that time came from trial and error. It was up to the people to figure out which foods were suitable and which could possibly cause illness or even death. The importance of food, specific dietary patterns and disease prevention were observed in the Indian Ayurvedic tradition, dating back to 2500 BCE (7). Looking beyond the medieval era, western science and medicine developed ways of thinking about food and health between 600 BCE and 300 CE (7). Societies throughout each era have looked at diet and nutrition as a means of healthy living and survival. Through the Renaissance and up to the eighteenth century, reports have noted that diet and nutrition were an integral part of having a fulfilled life (7). Many documents from ancient and historical times have evidence that inventions for food processing were becoming common knowledge and new foods were being discovered. In this time, food was mostly produced and consumed entirely within the local area. A familys nourishment was provided by the food that was grown and prepared within the family and exchanged with nearby neighbors. Cooking and preservation techniques at this time were not necessarily safe but were evolving towards more advanced processes. During the Industrial Revolution, the introduction of railroads and wagon roads made the transfer of goods possible at greater distances. This shift began to affect the foods that people had access to and what they ate (8). The science of nutrition began to emerge in the early to mid nineteenth century. During this time, both Europe and the United States were influenced by their governments to increase the yield of food from plant crops and animal herds (7). Food production held a very important role in nourishing the soldiers who were fighting in the war. Safe food was soon found to be the key for survival of troops, especially those who had been wounded and needed proper nourishment to fight illness and infection. Dietetics as a profession can be linked back to the evolution of home economics (9). The early evolution of food and nutrition science was explored to feed soldiers in battle and to also to provide necessary nutrition to those who were preparing to become young soldiers. Nutrition and appropriate food choices were demonstrated to young families to ensure healthy individuals. World War I brought food shortages. Those who were knowledgeable in dietetics encouraged others to plant gardens and learn how to develop recipes for home and hospital use. Both world wars experienced the creation of dietetics as a profession (9). Many important people deserve credit in the history of Dietetics. Far more than five people contributed to its development. Dietetics is largely applied by the use of chemistry. It is necessary to recognize Antoine Lavoisier, who is known as the Father of Chemistry. Lavoisier was born into an upper class, Paris family in 1743. He was able to obtain a law degree at the College Mazarin, though he never practiced law. He had more interest in mathematics and science and gained membership into the Academy of Sciences at 25 years old. (10). Lavoisier had many contributions, which include the assistance in establishing the metric system, to naming 33 elements of periodic table. He died at 51 from literally losing his head. He was found guilty of conspiracy against the people of France. Wilbur Olin Atwater, an American chemist, was born May 3, 1844 in Johnsburg, New York. Atwater is known for his studies in human nutrition and metabolism. He pursued an undergraduate degree at Wesleyan University in Connecticut and later went on to obtain his PhD from Yale Universitys Sheffield Scientific School in agricultural chemistry (11). Atwater invented a device called the respiration calorimeter that measured human metabolism balance by analyzing the heat produced and metabolic rate by a person performing certain activities. This new invention aided many new studies in dietary evolution and food analysis (7, 8, 11). Energy and protein sources were studied and measured to determine that certain foods provide different amounts of nutrients and energy than others. The fat, protein, and carbohydrates of all different kinds of foods were observed and soon there was an awareness of the food calorie. Atwater continued to lead research teams on the discovery of nutrient requirements, food composition and consumption, and consumer economics (12). Throughout his discoveries, Atwater determined that Americans eat more unhealthful foods than desired and do not exercise enough. Florence Nightingale, born 1820 in Tuscany into an upper class family, needs to be mentioned as a contributor to Dietetics as she was the one who acknowledged the need for safe and nutritious food for soldiers during the Crimean War (13). She was actually a pioneer nurse in her time and was determined to improve the living conditions at the camp hospitals and made an effort to clean and organize facilities where patients were cared for. Her contributions helped spread awareness of the necessity for clean, safe, and nutritious foods. There is a long history of health and nutrition and the involvement and contribution of many people and their discoveries has made great progress. Most of the progress has been made in the last 100 years, as new technologies have been a great asset to nutritional health and implementation. Scientific advances, social and economic factors, and military conflicts are contributors to the advancement of the dietetic profession as well. The most important contribution would have to be the determination and dedication by early dietitians who knew that there was a difference to be made and that they were the ones who would be able to make that difference. The understanding and importance of good eating habits was not common, not known, or perhaps just not understood by most of society. Scientific experiments were documented and scholarly journals written about nutrients, but they were almost impossible to understand by anyone who was not in the dietetic profession. Alice Blood was the one who would be able to put all of the difficult works into something that could be understood by large public audience. She translated science-based nutrition information into easy-to-read pamphlets in an effort to educate people on good nutrition. Alice Blood obtained a bachelors degree from Massachusetts Institute of Technology and a PhD in biochemistry from Yale. She also held the title of director at the School of Household Economics at Simmons College in Massachusetts (14). Many changes came about in 1917 for the dietetics profession and many women contributed to these changes. A new organization, the American Dietetic Association [ADA], was born in the fall of 1917 when more than 100 women organized a meeting in Cleveland to discuss multiple issues within dietetics. Lulu Graves, a dietician in Cleveland, held a strong position that dietitians play an important role of the medical team and that when nutrition services are offered to patients, money is saved (14). This is a time when dietitians had the primary role of feeding the wounded and sick in hospitals. The doctors were the ones who could prescribe special diets for treatments and dietitians were like the physicians assistants. At this point, doctors were primarily male and all dietitians were female. Graves stressed the importance of scientific training for dietitians and knew that the future of dietetics would be assured. Lulu Graves was elected the first president of the ADA (15). At the first meeting, many issues were discussed especially concerning food conservation and global food needs. This was an important time for the Association to come together, as World War I was still in full. The annual meeting to follow had greater attendance and included more states involvement. By the sixth annual meeting, which was held in Indianapolis in 1923, insulin was presented as the new treatment for diabetes (15). Insulin was discovered and isolated at the University of Toronto in 1921-1922 by Dr. Frederick Banting (16). Insulin is a hormone that is produced in the pancreas and is necessary to keep glucose levels in the blood at a safe and functional level. This was a major event in dietetic history, as the diagnosis and treatment of type 1 and type 2 diabetes continues to be largely addressed. Food technology was on the rise going into the 1930s. Refrigerators, toasters, canned goods, frozen vegetables, sliced bread and many other developments were introduced. These new preparation and storage methods provided more convenience for keeping food on hand. Obesity became a health concern, which was the topic of discussion towards the end of the 30s. Soon to follow would be the opening of the first McDonalds and Dairy Queen in the early 1940s (15). If what was known then about the negative health affects Americans would experience from frequenting fast food chains, one has to wonder if there would be any earlier changes in the way food is processed and produced for these places. Martha Lewis Nelson was a pioneer in exploring total education of dietitians (14). The original dietetic program was a four-year course at a University with a major in food and nutrition with a six-month dietetic internship. In 1942, Lewis was the director of Medical Dietetics at Ohio State University and she redesigned the internship program, making it possible to earn a Master of Science degree along with the internship (14). Many institutions today use this curriculum to develop education programs for dietetics. In 1966, nutrition and diet therapy services were included in comprehensive medical care programs. Clare Forbes, a Massachusetts delegate to the ADAs House of Delegates, was the force behind this movement (14). Forbes is credited for developing future state legislative programs and guiding the development of the ADAs mission statement (14). Twenty-six years ago, in 1982, the ADAs capacity to reach the public on food nutrition, and health concerns was forever changed. A new resource center, National Canter for Nutrition and Dietetics, was funded through a capital fund program (15). National Nutrition Month is one of the outreach programs that are very active today. The purpose of National Nutrition Month is to help make people aware of necessity of a healthy lifestyle and diet. Many more factors go into health other than just what a person eats. Diet and exercise go hand in hand. If it were not for the good old girls Blood, Graves, Lewis Nelson, and Forbes, the American Dietetic Association may not exist today. It is up to those in the profession to get the message out to the public about good health and nutrition so that money and lives can be saved in the end. Over the past 20 years, many new diet fads have been introduced. Some of these diets have proven to be effective and safe while others are affective and unsafe. Most often the results are temporary, as the people get bored with the same food or routine and then end up failing. Reading nutrition labels and ingredient lists on foods has become more popular in the past couple of years as people now have a better idea of what they are looking for. There are multiple commercials, newspaper articles, and health magazines that give health alerts to new findings in the food that people eat. With all of the sources in which nutrition facts and health information can be found, Americans are far more educated now than they ever have been before. The image is to get into shape and live healthier lifestyles. The advancements in medical technology have expanded the role of the dietetic professional on so many levels. Special diets, mechanically altered foods, and diagnosis of new disease conditions have forced nutritional professionals to test and experiment with new ways of feeding patients and ensuring that they are receiving appropriate nutrition. RESOURCES From academic journals to informational web sites, dietetic professionals look to many sources each day for updated health information and new discoveries. As a dietetic technician, registered dietician, nutritionist, or educator of dietetics, it is necessary to have many resources readily available. Educating and keeping up to date with the latest and greatest is the responsibility of each individual to ensure that they are providing the best possible care to patients. Since there are different focus areas in the dietetic profession, it is necessary to identify the best possible resources in which to keep each self informed and to continue learning day to day. The first major reference that is read and referred to regularly is the Journal of the American Dietetic Association. This journal covers practice applications, research that has been conducted, a calendar of events, new products and services, and a list of periodicals abstracted. Any area of study in the dietetic profession will be able to find useful information is in the journal. There is also a listing of job opportunities and advertisement for education at the back of the journal. Contact information is provided for non-dietetic professional to contact those who are in the profession (17). Elsevier Inc. in New York, NY publishes the Journal of the American Dietetic Association monthly. The copyright belongs to the American Dietetic Association with all rights reserved (17). Journals can be ordered from the publisher, found in public and school libraries and accessed online. There are certain journals that will most often be on the desks or bookshelves of those in the dietetic profession. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition is a publication of the American Society for Nutrition (18). The major focus of this journal is to provide information from clinical studies that have been conducted on basic human nutrition. This is a wonderful source to keep professionals up to date with the newest results from experiments and findings that have been performed by researchers and scientists. Using this journal as a reference is important, as all research is relevant to those in the profession. This journal is published monthly with two volumes per year in Bethesda, MD (18). Print and online subscriptions are available to both members and non-members of the dietetic profession. This journal can also be found in libraries. The Journal of Nutrition provides professionals with information on experiment nutrition, controversial issues in nutrition and critical reviews of nutrition scientists. This journal began circulation in 1928 as the official publication of the American Society for Nutrition. The journal publishes manuscripts that advance the understanding of nutritional mechanisms in the human population (19). This journal is also published monthly in Bethesda, MD. Anyone who has a membership in the American Society for Nutrition has access to the online version of the Journal of Nutrition. The journal can be found in the library and subscribed to through the publisher. Another journal, Nutrition, is designed as both an open access online journal and as a hardcopy version published by Elsevier. The interest of the journal is to publish results from clinical trials performed by physicians and scientists of all fields that aim to find better ways of determining treatment and diagnosis. Research articles, case studies, and peer reviews are all included in this journal. BioMed Central is the independent publisher of Nutrition journal online. Once articles are accepted and published by BioMed Central, they are also accessible at PubMed Central and MEDLINE (20). Access to BioMed Central can be achieved by using the URL: http://www.biomedcentral.com. Nutrition Research journal is An International Publication to Advance Food and Life Science Research (21). The journal is another one of many publications that is from Elsevier. Dietetic professionals refer to this journal for the latest articles and reviews of basic and applied nutrition, global communication of nutrition, and research on food and health. The purpose of the journal is to provide an advanced understanding of nutrients and how dietary components improve health conditions in humans. The publication of Nutrition Research began in 1981 (21). There is a Nutrition Package that can be purchased which includes the fore mentioned Nutrition Journal and the Nutrition Research journal, which is available through Elsevier. The American Journal of Health Behavior is the official publication of the American Academy of Health Behavior. PNG Publications in Star City, WV publish this journal bimonthly. Members of the American Academy of Health Behavior receive the journal as part of their membership. Online access to the journal is included in the membership (22). The journal provides valuable information on maintenance, restoration, and improving health using multiple methods. Information on how behavior causes health affects and how health care programs can and have been implemented can be found in this journal as well. This journal is a valuable tool for dietetic professionals, as the studies included give information that can be used when educating patients and designing diet plans and healthy lifestyle outlines. A professional in dietetics who wishes to become an educator would find it a good idea to become part of the Society for Nutrition Education [SNE]. With a membership to SNE, professionals have access to the Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior. Elsevier in New York, NY publishes the journal bimonthly (23). Journal articles and abstracts are accessible online at MEDLINE and www.jneb.org. Information that is found in the journal and online is beneficial for all levels of education. From school-aged children learning about the food groups to parents learning about appropriate feeding patterns, this resource will help educators with all levels of cliental. Four major magazines most often appear on the desks or end tables in the offices of dietitians and other nutrition professionals. Todays Dietitian is the most popular magazine subscription, which includes a wide range of health topics such as diabetes management, food allergies, research updates, and long-term care information. Great Valley Publishing Co., Inc. in Spring City, PA publishes this magazine (24). This magazine is very informational and easy to navigate to find exactly what a person is looking for. Todays Diet Nutrition offers expert information on issues such as eating right, exercising and getting results. Like the Todays Dietitian magazine, Great Valley Publishing Co. Inc. publishes Todays Diet Nutrition in Spring City, PA (25). Food, fitness, knowledge, and balance are all important aspects in living a healthy life and this magazine has valuable information to help the health-conscious person achieve what they are looking for and working toward. This magazine is published bimonthly. Most libraries carry this subscription and it can be purchased at Barnes Noble and many other retail outlets. A magazine that offers the newest information on fad diets and newly discovered functions of nutrients is Nutrition Today, published by Lippincott Williams Wilkins in Philadelphia, PA (26). The magazine covers topics of nutrition science, obesity and behavior, nutritional guidelines, and the business of nutrition and roles of the nutritional professional. Information found in this magazine is from credible sources, which includes scientists and nutritionists who back their reports and findings with evidence. This is a very good source to reference when seeking information about the latest diets and up-to-date controversial issues in dietetics. Continuing education and keeping oneself up to date is extremely important in the dietetic profession. Registered dietitians and technicians can complete Continuing Professional Education (CPE) credits in a number of ways. One great resource for this is the Topics in Clinical Nutrition magazine, published in Philadelphia, PA by Lippincott Williams Wilkins (27). New and updated issues are addressed and current research results are provided to keep professionals up to speed with the ever-changing world of nutrition. Members of the American Dietetic Association can become part of Dietetic Practice Groups (DPG), which focus on certain areas of nutrition and health. Newsletters are printed monthly or quarterly, depending which group the member is involved in. These newsletters are available online as well as hard copy. Copyright belongs to the American Dietetic Association and is published by Elsevier Inc (28). The Nutrition Research Newsletter is a monthly newsletter published by Technical Insights/Frost Sullivan in San Antonio, TX (29). The latest developmen

Explain how Steinbeck describes the differences in character between Lenny and George Essay

Explain how Steinbeck describes the differences in character between Lenny and George The author, John Steinbeck described Lenny as the opposite of George. Lenny and George are good friends but mostly have nothing in common except that they both share the same dream, the American dream. Steinbeck described what the characters are wearing at the beginning of the story. Then he started describing the difference in characters between George and Lenny. George is the smart one and Lenny is the one who’s childlike. Lenny always depends on George because George is the only friend he’s got and George is like the only family of Lenny. At the beginning of the story, Steinbeck first described what George and Lenny are wearing at the beginning of the story as â€Å"Both dressed in denim trousers and in denim coats with brass buttons†. Then he started describing the difference between George and Lenny. First he defined George as â€Å"small, strong hands, slender arms, a thin and bony nose†. Then he described Lenny with no similarity to George as â€Å"a huge man, shapeless of face, with large pale eyes, with wide sloping shoulders†. Steinbeck uses a simile to describe Lennie. He tells us how he walk by ‘dragging his feet a little, the way a bear drags his paws’, he described Lennie by comparing him to an animal. Steinbeck wants us to draw an image in our mind of how Lennie moves. In the next paragraph he compares Lennie to an animal again, when he ‘drank with long gulps, snorting into the water like a horse’. The author described Lennie like an animal so that we’ll imagine it clearly by picturing Lennie like the way an animal move. The role of George in novel is like a parent to Lennie who’s a big guy but has a mind like a child. Since Lennie’s Aunt died, George is the one taking care of Lennie. ‘When his Aunt Clara died, Lennie just come along with me out workin’, George said to Slim. Sometimes he tells Lennie the things to do and thing he’s not supposed to do. Lennie, for God’s sakes don’t drink so much’, George told him off like telling off a child. George acts as a parent to Lennie. Lennie imitates George sometimes. He copies George by the way he acts and the way he tells Lennie something to do, as if he’s also looking after George. ‘You drink some, George. You take a good big drink’, he told George. Steinbeck told us many things that describe how childish Lennie is. For example, when Lennie found out what Lennie had in his pocket. ‘It’s only a mouse George’, Lennie said nervously. He is afraid that George might take the mouse from him. Lennie love to pet animals like the way a child pets an animal, but Lennie doesn’t realise his strength. He accidentally kills the animals he pets because he’s stroking them to hard. George and Lennie argue sometimes. And when they did at the beginning of the story, George told Lennie about all the stuff he would do if Lennie was never with him. ‘if I was alone I could live so easy†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢, George described what it would be like without Lennie because George always gets in trouble because of Lennie. George said to Lennie angrily, ‘You keep me in hot water all the time’. George would like to be alone, but he doesn’t know how it feels to be a loner, he imagines what it feels like to take care of nobody except himself and he wants to know how it feels without the trouble of Lennie. He also wants to know if he would be happy or he might be lonely without Lennie. This is the feeling of George that Steinbeck wants us to know. Although, George is not the only one who would like to have a feeling of being alone. Lennie is a very confused man that cannot think very well. However, Lennie sometimes feel that George hates him because George doesn’t want him by his side. ‘If you don’t want me, you only jus’ got to say so and I’ll go off in those hills right there – right up in those hills and live by myself,’ Lennie talks like he’s defending himself. He’s acting strong and he’s trying to show George that he can live and he can take care by himself alone. But then George realises how mean he was when he talked about the things he would do if Lennie wasn’t with him. George changed his mind in the end. Then George replies, ‘I want you to stay with me, Lennie. Jesus Christ, somebody’d shoot you for a coyote if you was by yourself†¦.’ George replies to his thinking of living alone. George feels bad about what he said to Lennie. He is still worried about Lennie. He only imagines the bad things that might happen to Lennie if he was by himself. Steinbeck wants us to know that George don’t want Lennie to go, not only because Lennie can’t take care of himself alone, but it’s because George and Lennie are also best friends and have already known each other since childhood. Steinbeck tells us that George is the only that describes Lennie the way he is. George is the only one who knows him very well. ‘Hell of a nice fella, but he ain’t bright. I’ve knew him for a long time’ George described Lennie proudly. When he tells someone, like Slim, about Lennie, he doesn’t use the word â€Å"crazy† to describe Lennie because he already know what ways to describe Lennie. He even tells Slim that having Lennie isn’t so bad at all because they got each other to take care of. ‘I seen the guys that go around on the ranches alone. That ain’t no good. They don’t have no fun†¦.’ George was sincere when he was talking to Slim about them being friends. I think Steinbeck wants us to know that even though George and Lenny have nothing in common, they always had each other as friends. The author wants us to realise how strong George and Lennie’s bond. Their friendship can’t be broken by anyone, easily. The two characters played a good role to people to show how important friends are. Even though Lennie wasn’t bright, George accepted Lennie as he is because he is his friend. Both of them know that they have each other to take care of. Compare to other people who are alone, are the loneliest people. John Steinbeck described each of the character uniquely, unlike any other character in a novel. At the very beginning of the novel, Steinbeck described the surroundings of the Salinas River. He wants us to picture in our mind what the place looks like. He creates an image in our mind that relate to the senses, including sight and touch. ‘The Salinas River drops in close to the hillside bank and runs deep and green. The water is warm too†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ He also uses a metaphor to describe things clearly. ‘the golden foothill’. He wants the reader to imagine what its like and because he knows that we’ll understand what it means because it’s just a metaphor. The writer did all this at the beginning of the novel to make the target audience want to read this novel. And once they become really interested in reading the beginning of the story, they’ll plan to read the whole book.

History Study Notes Essay

Topic 1 Investigating History †¢ interpret and construct time lines †¢ define the terms that describe historical periods of time †¢ the terminology and concepts of historical time, including year, decade, generation, century, age, BC/AD, BCE/CE †¢ sequence societies and events within specific periods of time †¢ ask historical questions †¢ distinguish between fact and opinion †¢ draw some conclusions about the usefulness of sources including a website †¢ examine differing historical perspectives and interpretations †¢ explain cause and effect †¢ identify significant people of the past  Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ examine the motives for people. s actions in the past †¢ the process of historical inquiry: . Fact and opinion . †¢ the usefulness of sources as evidence including a website . †¢ differing perspectives . cause and effect . history as the study of people †¢ explain the consequences of people. s actions †¢ describe some aspects of family/community heritage †¢ heritage issues †¢ appreciate the value of preserving and conserving our heritage Ancient Egypt †¢ the origins of the society or period †¢ identify the origins of the society or historical period †¢ daily life of men and women in the society or period  Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ describe how both men and women lived in the society or period †¢ Civics and citizenship in the society or period †¢ describe the way in which the people of the society or period were governed †¢ describe the rights and freedoms of different groups in the society or period †¢ beliefs and values of the people of the society or period †¢ explain the beliefs and values of the society †¢ impact of significant people and/or events †¢ explain the impact made by significant people and/or events on the society or period †¢ contacts with other peoples †¢ outline the contacts that the society had with other peoples.

Scales of Environmental Justice Essays

Scales of Environmental Justice Essays Scales of Environmental Justice Paper Scales of Environmental Justice Paper Abstract This paper examines the spatial point pattern of industrial toxic substances and the associated environmental justice implications in the San Francisco Bay Area, California, USA. Using a spatial analysis method called Ripley’s K we assess environmental justice across multiple spatial scales, and we verify and quantify the West Oakland neighborhood as an environmental justice site as designated by the US Environmental Protection Agency. Further, we integrate the ISCST3 air dispersion model with Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to identify the number of people potentially affected by a particular facility, and engage the problem of non-point sources of diesel emissions with an analysis of the street network. Introduction Environmental Justice Theory Environmental injustice has multiple meanings to different people, but can be thought of simply as occurring when a particular social group is disproportionately burdened with environmental hazards (Pellow 2000). Pellow defines environmental racism, an environmental justice issue, as the institutional rules, regulations, and policies of government or corporate decisions that deliberately target certain communities for least desirable land uses, resulting in the disproportionate exposure of toxic and hazardous waste on communities. Environmental inequality addresses structural questions that focus on social inequality of power, resources and environmental burdens. Environmental justice cases in California have focused recently on air pollution exposure from urban traffic (Houston et al. 2004), especially with regards to public schools (Morello-Frosch et al. 2002b; Pastor et al. 2002), and public policy for health risk measurements (Dunsby 2004). Additionally, environmental justice has been addressed in California’s water management (Haughton 1998), Toxic Releases Inventory (TRI; volume and location of emissions from facilities), and treatment, storage, and disposal facilities (TSDF), though the geographic focus has been primarily on Southern California and Los Angeles rather than the San Francisco Bay Area (Boer et al. 1997; Morello-Frosch et al. 2002a; Morello-Frosch et al. 2001; Sadd et al. 1999). The US Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Air Toxics and Environmental Justice teams at the Region 9 Office recently focused their assessment of justice and equality on the health impacts of air toxics on a dense minority and low-income area in West Oakland, California in the San Francisco Bay Area through a sequence of events. Citizens suspected that their health was at risk from odorous releases from the many facilities in the area. Additionally, heavy diesel truck (vehicular) traffic was increasingly becoming a problem due to truck routes through their residential neighborhood (Pacific Institute and Coalition for West Oakland Revitalization 2003). The community of West Oakland mobilized (for mobilization on a transit issue, see Rodriguez 1999) and approached the US EPA for help. A working relationship does not in itself push a community to the top of the US EPA list. Two additional factors made West Oakland a top priority: an unusually high number of pollutant sources and a high density of minority and lowincome people, all of which were matters of high public awareness in the region. On this base of perception, there was then need for valid empirical demonstration of congruent clustering of emissions and of minority residential populations. The agency needed to know the numbers of pollutant sources and the population structure in West Oakland before designating this area for priority attention. We analyzed environmental justice in West Oakland across multiple scales with a point pattern analysis of spatial statistics new to environmental justice. Our objectives were to pinpoint statistically significant clusters of point source polluters and examine the surrounding demographics. Through Geographic Information Systems (GIS) we investigated non-point source pollution in addition to estimating the demographics affected by the most dangerous point-source polluter via a Gaussian plume model. The purpose of this research was to answer and quantify questions of scale in environmental justice. The underlying processes that lead to environmental injustices can be political, economic, historical, and social. Politically, this could be lack of representation or participation, lack of lobbying power, greed among politicians, NIMBYism (not in my backyard), unequal power in the legal system and inadequate laws (Cole 1992), zoning (Maantay 2001), and inadequate regulations/enforcement/permitting (Levenstein and Wooding 1998; Mank 1999; Weinberg 1999). Economic processes include suburban sprawl (Ellis et al. 2002), widening income gaps (Krugman 2002), capitalism externalities (Levenstein and Wooding 1998), and market dynamics (Been 1994). Historical processes vary for different peoples, but these might include slavery, Jim Crow laws1 , land ownership (Romm 2000), disenfranchisement, persecution, anti-immigrant laws, genocide, access to health care (US Commission on Civil Rights 2003), and immigrant work programs (Marentes 2004). Social processes include stereotypes (Bobo 2001), ra cism (Pulido 1996), language barriers, segregation, hegemony, social construction, affirmative inaction and mismatched attitudes (Blackwell et al. 2002). Critics of environmental justice have cited methodological problems (Friedman 2003; Oakes et al. 1996; Yandle and Burton 1996), alternative causal interpretations such as market dynamics of capitalism (Been 1994), and misplaced priorities such as poverty over pollution (Foreman 1998). Further, it has been argued that potentially hazardous industries would provide compensation such as jobs for minorities and that increased wealth leads to increased health benefits (Adler 1999; Simon 2000; Tiebout 1956), but these arguments neglect the scale at which wealth and health benefits relate to the detrimentally affected local people. Facilities may not employ local residents nor pay an equitable wage (Pellow 2000). Further, even if facilities are not directly polluting, accidents can occur (Bolin et al. 2000). Legislatively, environmental justice in the U.S. is addressed in a number of media. The 14th Amendment mandates equal protection under law, but intent must be shown to prove discrimination (such as clearly selective enforcement, unequal municipal services, or statements by government officials). Title VI of the Civil Rights Act prohibits discrimination by Federally funded programs, and the Supreme Court requires intent to be shown if a lawsuit is brought under Section 601, yet only disparate impact for administrative complaints under Section 602 (Mank 1999; Weinberg 1999). Disparate impact may be evaluated through five steps (Mank 1999): Identify the affected population, especially those in close proximity to the facility; Determine the demographics of the affected population through mapping technology such as GIS; Determine the universe(s) of facilities and total affected population(s), especially the cumulative pollution burden of neighboring facilities; Conduct a disparate impact analysis both by examining the racial or ethnic composition within the affected population and by comparing that composition to unaffected populations in other relevant areas; Determine the significance of the disparity through the use of standard statistical methods. We follow the steps outlined above in this research. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) historically has failed to enforce Title VI because of conflicts with the agency’s primary goal to reduce pollution (Mank 1999). In 1994, President Clinton issued Executive Order 12898, which mandated all Federal agencies to address environmental justice in minority and low-income populations. Although the US EPA created an Office of Environmental Justice for guidance (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1992; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1998), the Office of Inspector General2 released a review report stating that the US EPA had not been consistently implementing the intent of the Executive Order (Office of Inspector General 2004). Among the Office of Inspector General’s findings were that the US EPA had recently deemphasized minority and low-income populations in environmental justice, and that the methods of analysis, including the use of GIS, had been inconsistent. The US EPA must follow a methodology by whi ch disparate impact can be assessed, and populations can be analyzed appropriately and consistently. Spatial Analyses of Environmental Justice In this paper we apply a point pattern statistical approach to environmental justice research that avoids pre-determined units of analysis to identify appropriate scales of analysis. A number of studies have integrated point pattern analysis into a GIS framework and have explored the value of this approach to epidemiology (Gatrell and Bailey 1996; Kingham et al. 1995) in the context of detecting clusters (Bhopal et al. 1992; Fotheringham and Zhan 1996; Gatrell et al. 1996). Our spatial point pattern analysis is based on Ripley’s K-function (Ripley 1976), which has been broadly applied in ecological spatial patterns; examples include landscape dynamics of forest disease (Kelly and Meentemeyer 2002), distribution patterns of herbs (Kenkel 1993), desert shrubs (Prentice and Werger 1985; Skarpe 1991), and tropical forest trees (Sterner et al. 1986). OBrien et al. (1999) used Ripley’s K to assess the spatial and temporal distribution of canine cancers in Michigan. Barff (198 7) analyzed the second-order point pattern of manufacturing plants in Ohio for economic and social justice. Ripley’s K examines the test statistic across various spatial scales and reveals the scale at which the pattern of events is operating most strongly. Furthermore, our analysis avoids the use of census tracts3 , which are politically defined and can change with time. Ripley’s K addresses the distributive theory of equality in questioning whether or not certain communities are burdened with a disproportionate number of facilities. Not only does the statistic provide agencies such as the US EPA with sound backing of statistical significance and a link to equality and justice theory, but it also helps guide policies at the appropriate political-spatial scale- from international, national, and regional/state to county, city, and neighborhood. Initial studies in environmental justice showed that emissions are concentrated in minority relative to predominantly white residential areas, with consequently differential health impacts among racial groups (Bullard 1994; United Church of Christ Commission on Racial Justice 1987). However, critics were quick to point out flaws in the analysis with emphasis on scale- results and conclusions can change depending on the range of space and time analyzed (Anderton et al. 1994; Friedman 2003). Maantay (2002) reported that there is a need to develop more accurate methods for determining the geographic extent of exposure and the characteristics of the affected populations, to use dispersion modeling and advanced proximity analysis, and neighborhood-scale analysis. Rhodes (2003) suggested the use of several different spatial measurement units with geographic problems and to be sensitive if or when the indications of environmental justice problems change. We implement the conclusions of thes e researchers here, with particular attention to varying spatial scale, neighborhood-level analysis and dispersion modeling. The standard spatial scale of analysis for environmental justice with GIS in the US has been the census tract level (Bowen et al. 1995; Buzzelli et al. 2003; Cutter et al. 2002; Szasz and Meuser 2000; Yandle and Burton 1996). The focus on the census tract assumes that point sources and the population are distributed uniformly throughout the census tracts, which are inconsistent in size and shape. Researchers have attempted to avoid the census tract level with proximity-based assessments of demographics within a certain radius of a given facility. The exact radius is often fitted, subjective, or arbitrary (Anderton et al. 1994), however, and should depend on air movement. Radius sizes have ranged from 0.5 km (Dunn and Kingham 1995; Dunn et al. 2001; Dunn et al. 1995), 0.8 km (Baden and Coursey 2002), and 1.6 km (Bolin et al. 2000; Glickman and Hersh 1995), to 4.0 km (Anderton et al. 1994); Pastor et al. (2004) examined a range of 0.8 km, 1.6 km, and 4 km buffers. Additionally, these a uthors employed a range of statistical tests, such as Chisquare, Cramer’s V (Cramà ©r 1999), raised incidence modeling (Diggle and Rowlingson 1994), and the Townsend index of deprivation (Townsend et al. 1988). Some authors were content with producing maps with no statistics. Scholars have debated what the unit of analysis should be, from the â€Å"community† that is based on census block groups and travel time (Taquino et al. 2002) to raster-based (Mennis 2002) or multi-scalar analysis (Williams 1999). There has also been criticism that the choice of target predetermines the evaluation of social impact. We take a different path: scale becomes a variable rather than a pre-determined measure. We seek to identify the scales at which clusters, and congruence among them, are more and less likely to exist for different analytical purposes. Methods Data The main demographic information (e.g. population density, race breakdown) was obtained from the US Census Bureau’s 2000 survey at census tract, block group, and block spatial scales. We used TRI for 1999 (to compare to the 2000 Census data) for the point pattern analysis4 . The annual TRI records the volume and location of self-reported releases from private sector and federal facilities. All industries that meet the following criteria have mandatory reporting: (a) the production facility’s primary Standard Industrial Classification is manufacturing; (b) the facility has 10 or more full-time employees; and (c) the facility manufactures or processes over 25,000 pounds of at least one of the over 600 TRI chemicals, or uses more than 10,000 pounds of at least one TRI chemical (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1997; U.S. General Accounting Office 1991a; U.S. General Accounting Office 1991b). Specifically, TRI chemicals in West Oakland included: chlorine, chromium, nitrate compounds, and zinc compounds, though the carcinogen acetaldehyde is perhaps the most harmful. Data are provided for each release medium, including air, water, underground injection, land, and off-site transfers. A critical methodological issue is the accuracy of the locations of point-source hazards found in US EPA data sets (e.g., Glickman and Hersh 1995; Scott et al. 1997; Stockwell et al. 1993). But, the US EPA TRI data offers the most comprehensive measures of industrially released hazardous emissions in the United States, particularly after we checked for locational validity by geocoding each TRI location to its correct street address (Bolin et al. 2000; Daniels and Friedman 1999; Krieg 1998b; Mitchell et al. 1999). Addresses used in geocoding were verified as the facility address rather than the office address. The BAAQMD health risk screening was based on the US EPA’s Industrial Source Complex Short Term (ISCST3) air dispersion model (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1995; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1999), and those risks were estimated in accordance with procedures adopted by Cal/EPA’s Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) for the Air Toxics Hot Spots Program. The ISCST3 model has been validated successfully for a number of pollutants in a variety of locations (e.g., Elbir 2002; Kumar et al. 1999; Lorber et al. 2000; Mazzeo and Venegas 2004). Dispersion is a term that describes advection (horizontal movement) and diffusion (mixing) of gases. Air dispersion models can range from simple models that require minor computation to complex threedimensional models that require extensive data and computation, the type of which depends on the scale of the problem and the input data available. Chakraborty and Armstrong (1995) detail the methodology by which to determine demographic composition of a population affected by the release of toxic substances. They describe the Geographic Plume Analysis approach that takes a dispersion model, which outputs a dispersal â€Å"footprint†, and superimposes it on a demographic database. We follow this approach here. The data were processed in a GIS database containing air pollutant source data (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1997) for US EPA Region 9 (Arizona, California, Nevada and the Pacific Islands) and detailed demographic information for West Oakland from the 2000 US Census (U.S. Bureau of the Census 2000). We integrated the database with ESRI’s ArcGIS 8.1 and S-Plus 6.0. The main statistical processing of point pattern analyses relied on SPlus 6.0, and analyses and map production on the ArcMap component of ArcGIS 8.1. The data were projected into Albers Equal Area with the North American Datum 1983 to preserve area measurements. Analysis Clusters of point source polluters were identified through point pattern analysis that combined intensity distributions and Ripley’s K. Intensity is defined as the mean number of points per unit area; intensity distributions reveal first-order properties of a spatial point process and variation through space to assess the spatial dependence between points. First-order properties of a spatial point process describe how the mean number of points per unit area (the intensity) varies through space. For a stationary process, the intensity is assumed to be constant over the bounded region of interest. We initially followed a weighted edge correction (Ripley 1977), though Lancaster and Downes (2004) specify that edge correction is not necessary for length-scale assessment of clusters. Intensity distributions show where clusters are occurring, Ripley’s K reveals statistical significance of those apparent clusters. Ripley’s K is a second-order (variance of distances) function for spatial point pattern and is used to detect spatial randomness (Ripley 1976). A spatial point pattern is a collection of points irregularly located within a bounded region of space (e.g. pollutant sources within a county). The data set may consist of locations only, or it may be a marked point process, with data values associated with each location (e.g. longitude/latitude with associated emissions). The analysis is termed â€Å"second-order† because of its focus on the variance of the test statistic across a series of progressively larger areas- the size of the step is set to reveal the inter-event distances at which clustering, if present, is strongest. By examining the test statistic at various spatial scales (e.g. region, county, city), the scale at 6 which the pattern of events (points) is operating most strongly (highest statistical significance and confidence) can be determined. Ripley’s K e xamines the null hypothesis of Complete Spatial Randomness (CSR) for a mapped spatial point pattern. CSR is defined by the following criteria: a) the intensity of the point pattern does not vary over the bounded sampling region, and the pattern follows a homogeneous Poisson distribution; b) there are no interactions among the points. Ripley’s K can reject the null hypothesis that the spatial pattern of points is random. After the data were analyzed by the Ripley’s K method, a plot of count K(h) versus distance h revealed deviations as expected under CSR. The deviation was tested for statistical significance. One test employed the calculation of constant approximate confidence intervals around CSR (Getis and Franklin 1987; Szwagrzyk and Czerwczak 1993). Another test used Monte Carlo methods to determine statistical significance of the results by determining the amount of variation to be expected in sample statistics from computergenerated data (e.g., Manly 1991). In the context of spatial pattern analysis, Monte Carlo methods simulate randomly generated plots of the same dimensions of the observed plot thus creating confidence intervals from the highest and lowest values of K(h) (Haase 1995). We plot ((K(h)/Ï€) 0.5 – h) or simply (L(h) – h) against h to show the deviation of K(h) from CSR. If the deviation of the sample statistic from zero expectation is positive and above the upper limit of the confidence interval, then a clumped distribution can be assumed, while negative deviation indicates a regular pattern, otherwise the null hypothesis of CSR cannot be rejected (Haase 1995). Our GIS analysis followed the point pattern analysis with an examination of the communities and pollutant sources in the proximity of identified clusters of point source polluters. We determined race and income distributions in addition to the presence or absence of environmental goods (e.g, parks). With the BAAQMD health risk screening based on the US EPA’s ISCST3 air dispersion model, we evaluated in the West Oakland cluster the potential exposure by the facility Red Star Yeast (LaSaffre Yeast Corp.), which the US EPA determined posed the greatest health risk due to carcinogenic emissions of acetaldehyde (personal communication Grow 2001). LaSaffre Yeast, which operates in over 180 countries, ranked 8th of all SF Bay Area facilities for cancer health risks, and 2nd in Oakland for air pollution health risks (Greenaction.org 2003). Finally, we assessed mobile source pollution with an examination of the road network and travel routes within and around the neighborhood. Results First- and Second-Order Spatial Analysis An initial examination of point sources in the US EPA’s Region 9 in California shows clusters unsurprisingly in the major population centers of the San Francisco Bay Area and Los Angeles. With the question of West Oakland in mind, we first analyzed all TRI sources from 1999 in the San Francisco Bay Area cluster, which includes the counties of Alameda, Contra Costa, Marin, San Mateo and San Francisco (Figure 1a). An intensity distribution revealed multiple peaks, with the two largest clusters located in the East Bay (Figure 1b). Our Ripley’s K test found that the two major clusters were statistically significant whereby the deviation of the sample statistic from zero expectation was positive and above the confidence interval (Figure 1c). The distribution of Ripley’s K above the upper confidence interval indicates clustering, between the confidence intervals indicates random spatial pattern, and below the lower confidence interval indicates a regularly distributed pattern. The y-axis represents the deviation of the sample statistic from CSR; the units are in count numbers, but have been transformed as per Haase (1995). The x-axis represents distance (units are in degrees of longitude and latitude here), and the distance shows the extent of the clustering. Second, we examined the East Bay (Alameda County) TRI clusters specifically, again with the intensity distribution and Ripley’s K (Figures 2a, b, and c). The intensity distribution shows the evident positioning of facilities along the west side, but cannot distinguish clearly individual clusters within that swell of facilities. Fig. 1. (a) TRI (1999) facilities in the San Francisco (SF) Bay Area. (b) Intensity distribution for TRI (1999) sources in the SF Bay Area of points per grid cell in longitude by latitude. (c) Ripley’s K test for TRI (1999) facilities in the SF Bay Area. The distribution above the upper confidence interval indicates clustering at the scales of degrees. The distribution between the confidence intervals indicates a random spatial pattern. Below the lower confidence interval would indicate a regular spatial pattern. The y-axis represents the deviation of the sample statistic from CSR; the units are in transformed count numbers. The x-axis represents distance (units are in degrees). We were able to distinguish the individual clusters within that swell with the Ripley’s K plot as evidenced by the three peaks in the clustered area of the plot (Figure 2a). Fig. 2. (a) TRI (1999) facilities in Alameda County. (b) Intensity distribution for TRI (1999) facilities in Alameda County. (c) Ripley’s K test for TRI (1999) facilities in Alameda County. Because the US EPA was interested in validating the identification of West Oakland as an  environmental justice site, we examined in depth the City of Oakland cluster (Figure 3a). The intensity distribution illustrates the two clusters of facilities, but cannot determine if those peaks are statistically significant clusters (Figure 3b). The Ripley’s K plot shows that there is still statistically significant clustering occurring, though the data have become limited at this small of a spatial scale so this is the smallest scale at which we can examine with Ripley’s K (Figure 3c). Fig. 3. (a) TRI (1999) facilities in the City of Oakland. (b) Intensity distribution for TRI (1999) facilities in the City of Oakland. (c) Ripley’s K test for TRI (1999) facilities in the City of Oakland. GIS Analysis for West Oakland After determining the presence, scale, and location of clusters, the next step in an environmental justice framework is to examine the communities within the extent of those clusters. Using the US Census Bureau 2000 survey, we analyzed the block level data (a block is roughly equal to a city block) for the cluster at West Oakland. The greatest density of West Oakland residents is situated in the center and along the eastern freeway border of the area; the Fig. 5. Median household income by block group (frequency) in US Dollars. western industrial port is largely uninhabited. We created a broad race distribution map based on the racial majority for each block (Figure 4). This map shows that the majority of the West Oakland community is African American. In West Oakland, African Americans (Black) comprise 65% of the population, the rest of the population is made up of Caucasians (White; 9%), Latinos (Hispanic; 7%), Asians (9%), and â€Å"Other† (racial mixes, Native Americans/American Indians, Hawaiian; 10%). The median household income per year is roughly $20-25,000US, which is lower than that of the surrounding areas (Figure 5). There are 14 schools in West Oakland, half of which are within 600 m of a TRI facility. There are some parks (an environmental good), but the newest one is rarely used as it is adjacent to  the freeway and a Superfund site . There are no hospitals in West Oakland. Figures 6. (a) and (b) Extent of Red Star Yeast emissions based on BAAQMD’s Health Risk Screening Analysis on population density per square mile. (c) Total number of people potentially affected by Red Star Yeast emissions. We split air pollutant sources into stationary (e.g. factories) and mobile (e.g. vehicles) sources. Stationary sources are scattered throughout West Oakland, but they are not equal to each other in their relative health threat to the community. Now, from a TRI database with thousands of facilities the US EPA can focus on the facilities that pose the greatest health threats- in the case of West Oakland, the carcinogenic emissions of acetaldehyde by Red Star Yeast. We integrated the BAAQMD air modeling analysis of Red Star Yeast’s emissions into the GIS (Figures 6a and b). We overlaid the ISCST3 air dispersion model on top of the block level population layer in order to determine the number of people potentially affected by Red Star Yeast (Figure 6c). The resulting estimate of 5,628 people is derived from the maximum extent of the BAAQMD model, including the whole of those blocks cut by the model, but the number of people who live within the high-concentration areas is under 268. Furthermore, the air dispersion model is drawn in much more detail closer to the facility, whereas uncertainty leads to a generalized rough rectangle for the maximum bounds. The highest concentrations of acetaldehyde emitted from the facility effect those populations living closest to Red Star Yeast, and the associated health effects are subject to the assumptions of the model. Here, we found the estimated number of people potentially exposed to Red Star Yeast’s emissions based on the block level demographic information within the boundaries of the ISCST3 model. The mobile source in West Oakland is primarily from heavy diesel truck traffic through the community to the Port of Oakland. Chemicals in diesel pollution may cause cancer, harm the reproductive system and aggravate asthma (Kagawa 2002; Morgan et al. 1997). The Pacific Institute and Coalition for West Oakland Revitalization (2003) offered a number of ideas to alleviate these problems. With GIS we assess two of their recommendations: install traffic barriers on prohibited streets, and create a designated truck route not through the neighborhood. As communicated by the US EPA, the truck drivers indicated that there are only a few gasoline (petrol) stations near the port and those stations are unavoidably in the middle of the densely populated neighborhoods (personal communication Grow 2001). We mapped the population density, road network, port terminals, and all gasoline stations (15) within a 2.4-km Fig. 7. Road network, port terminals, gasoline stations, and an alternative driving route around the high population density. (1.5-mile) radius of the center of West Oakland along with the major terminals (Figure 7). Based on the two recommendations and Figure 7, we found an alternative driving route around the high population density. The roads currently used- which cut through the community- are crossed off with X’s, and the alternative route is highlighted. In sum, the key results here are: 1) detection of the cause of the problem- the three roads that run into the community; and 2) recommendation of a solution to the problem- an alternative route around the community. Without site familiarity, the US EPA would have little sense of road spacing and gasoline station locations. The GIS can provide a clear picture to the arguments posed by the residents and truckers on transit routes and gasoline stations. Discussion We used Ripley’s K combined with GIS to identify not only statistically significant areas of clusters, but also the scales at which those clusters exist. This research focused on narrowing down the extensive region- and statewide datasets into local neighborhoods that can be applied with local remedies. It is not unusual that a hierarchy of politics and economics exists across spatial scales for environmental justice (Simmons 2004). At the local level, new issues emerge that may not otherwise be evident at larger scales, such as the road network and transportation problem. Corrective justice, which is the notion that polluters should be punished and held responsible for cleanups and should compensate or repair communities damaged by historic pollution, can be implemented at the local level (Lazarus 1993). But, intermediate scales of clusters were also seen in, for example, the clustering of facilities in the East Bay relative to the San Francisco Bay Area as a whole. We focuse d on West Oakland not only as a directly applicable problem, but also as a means to raise and answer broader questions and purposes to be applied generally. As the spatial scale becomes smaller we necessarily lose the amount of data points to work with and the analysis and interpretation of the intensity distributions and Ripley’s K plots likewise changes. At the scale of the San Francisco Bay Area, clustering is most dominant in the East Bay, though geography influences clustering and edge effects as well (water and topography constrain potential sites at this scale that play less of a role at other sites and scales). The intensity distribution can show where clumping occurs, but the largest peaks are likely the most important clusters because the peaks are based on a scale relative to one another. At the scale of Alameda County, the intensity distribution reveals little about individual clustering, as it seems that the point sources are evenly spread along the water (large peak on the west side). The Ripley’s K plot, however, is more informative at the county scale where geography and edge effects are minimized. Three clear peaks in the plot point to three areas of clusters all within the broad cluster along the water. Analysis of one of those three peaks- the City of Oakland- shows two areas where facilities are located. The intensity distribution shows a cluster where West Oakland is defined, and another more intense peak (the facilities are clustered closer together) further south. The Ripley’s K plot is not as clear at this scale because the data have become so sparse relative to the larger scales. As with other EPA hazard data, there are recognized limitations to the TRI data. In addition to not providing human exposure information, the data are restricted to large manufacturing facilities and exclude releases from smaller firms, landfills and abandoned industrial sites, hazardous waste facilities, and power plants (Bolin et al. 2000). Pastor et al. (2004) report that it is difficult to make time series or longitudinal comparisons in TRI emission reporting due to periodic changes in the reporting requirements, but this paper focuses primarily on issues of  spatial scale. Further epidemiological work is still needed. The literature on GIS and spatial analysis for environmental justice has focused on census tracts or proximity-based assessments within variable radii from facilities. Critics have argued the need to assess environmental justice across different spatial scales; additionally, dispersion modeling and neighborhood-scale analysis has been called for (e.g., Maantay 2002). Further, no clear consensus on appropriate spatial statistics has emerged, because each statistic addresses different types of questions. We add to the environmental justice literature a method that: avoids census tracts and radii-based proximity assessments; assesses environmental justice across large and small spatial scales; integrates a welldeveloped air dispersion model with demographic data; and includes a measure of statistical significance for cluster evaluation. The Office of Inspector General criticized the US EPA’s de-emphasis of minority and low-income populations in addressing Executive Order 12898. While the criticism is certainly justified, the US EPA must grapple with changing political power and administrative changes that lead to these shifts in emphasis. The method we present here approaches the issue of environmental justice without starting with race or income, since such a starting point might lead to bias in data interpretation. In other words, our results showed that clusters of polluters are statistically pinpointed first, and then the surrounding demographics are examined next rather than the other way around. Unfortunately, minorities and low-income populations are often coupled with these clusters nonetheless, hence the rationale behind the environmental justice movement, though certainly many minorities and poor people live in clean environments. This analysis also ties into â€Å"disparate impact† as was discussed on Section 602 in Title VI of the Civil Rights Act. Disparate impact is now connected to communities living within statistically significant clusters, or a disparate number, of TRI facilities relative to other communities. The US EPA can apply these results to implement policies, but based on what notions of justice or equality? Theories of justice (Miller 1999; Rawls 1999; Wenz 1988) range from utilitarian (greatest good for greatest number), libertarian (greatest individual benefits without harm), communitarian (community over individual), and egalitarian (greatest benefit to least advantaged- maximize the minimum). Theories of equality (Sharder-Frechette 2002) include distributive justice (equal apportionment of social benefits and burdens), participative justice (equal rights to self-determination in societal decision-making), and procedural justice (equal distribution of enforcement, monitoring and othe r processes). Some theories of justice and equality simply are insufficient to base policies on. A utilitarian approach, for instance, might justify disproportionate environmental burdens if society as a whole is better off economically due to production, but Lejano et al. (2002) has already found that there is no justice in this approach, at least for air quality policies in Southern California. Procedural justice has been argued as insufficient in the environmental justice in California and the Southwestern US to advance environmental equality (Pulido 1994). Although the State of California’s EPA has emphasized participative justice in environmental justice policies (California Environmental Protection Agency 2003), this may be more difficult to apply at a federal level for the US EPA. Other theories of justice and equality need to be reinforced through policies. The egalitarian approach is lacking because West Oakland, considered as the least advantaged in terms of income, exposure to po llution and access to environmental goods, is not realizing the greatest benefits. The US EPA must implement distributive justice because these social burdens are not equally apportioned. Areas like West Oakland may be obvious areas for targeting environmental justice research due to the high amounts of pollution coupled with high minority concentrations, and the communities mobilized to solve their local injustice found there. For future inquiry, however, other communities may be less mobilized and empowered or the clustering of pollutant sources may be less obvious than those studied here. Although the spatial data analysis techniques were used to verify existing environmental justice areas, these methods can be used to identify new areas for study relatively 12 quickly and efficiently. The creation of potential environmental injustice areas may be proactively avoided if the US EPA has an efficient data monitoring strategy whereby clusters of possible polluters would trigger a statistical alarm. Certainly, not every cluster would necessarily be an environmental justice site, but this would at least provide a mechanism for the US EPA to focus their efforts for further research. Additionally, if the air dispersion model can be applied to many facilities simultaneously, then a possible aggregate impact could be assessed. It is important that the US EPA continue to use GIS and spatial data analysis to approach these issues and expedite the process to the enforcement stage. Following the completion of this analysis (but before publication), the US EPA applied our results in combination with community members, activist groups6 , and Federal, State and local agencies to apply pressure on Red Star Yeast to significantly restrict emissions or face sanctions and be shut down. Further, BAAQMD did not renew Red Star Yeast’s air emissions permit. 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